ESCUELA TÉCNICA DE VIALIDAD NACIONAL Nº 2 “ING. Juan Domingo Pío”

Cuadernillo de Inglés II Carrera de

Técnico Superior en Obras Viales AÑO MMXI

Trelew - Chubut

Docente: Marcela N. Morejón

2 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Índice Parte I - Gramática Pág.

Oraciones simples. Orden de las palabras Presente Perfecto Presente Perfecto Continuo Pasado Continuo Pasado Perfecto Pasado Perfecto Continuo Futuro Simple Futuro Progresivo Futuro Perfecto Futuro Perfecto Progresivo Futuro con “going to” Oraciones Condicionales Frases Verbales Voz Activa y Voz Pasiva Estilo Indirecto (reported speech) Oraciones: Causa Obligaciones y Requerimientos Oraciones: Causa y Efecto Escala de probabilidades Oraciones de Relativo (relative clauses) Oraciones Subordinadas de propósito y resultado Adjetives and adverbs Preposiciones de tiempo Preposiciones de Lugar Cuantificadores Contrastando ideas Verbos Modales

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Parte II - Actividades Oraciones simples. Orden de las palabras Presente Perfecto Presente perfecto o Pasado simple Presente perfecto continuo Presente perfecto continuo y simple Pasado continuo Pasado continuo o Pasado simple Pasado perfecto Pasado perfecto continuo Futuro simple Futuro continuo Futuro perfecto Futuro perfecto progresivo Futuro con “going to” Tiempos verbales: Presente Tiempos verbales: Pasado Tiempos verbales: Futuro Oraciones Condicionales Frases verbales Voz Activa vs Voz pasiva

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Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

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3 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Estilo indirecto (reported speech) Oraciones de causa Obligaciones y requerimientos Oraciones: causa y efecto Escala de probabilidades Oraciones de relativo (relative clauses) Oraciones subordinadas de propósito y resultado Adjetivos y adverbios Preposiciones de tiempo Preposiciones de lugar Cuantificadores (quantifiers) Contrastando ideas Verbos modales

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Parte III – Textos Portland Cement Excavator Bullzoder Concrete Mixer Grader Road roller Ready-mix

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Este cuadernillo fue diseñado y armado por la Docente Marcela Noemí Morejón para la Cátedra de Laboratorio de Idioma II de la Carrera de Técnico Superior en Obras Viales que se dicta en la Escuela Técnica de Vialidad Nacional N°2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”. El material fue tomado de distintas fuentes las cuales figuran en el apartado de Bibliografía y las explicaciones se tradujeron al castellano con el objetivo de proveer al alumno una fuente de consulta práctica y autónoma Trelew (Chubut), Abril 2011

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

4 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Oraciones Simples Orden de las palabras Una oración nos dice “algo”, contiene una idea. Es una Oración Simple aquella que sólo nos cuenta una sola cosa. El orden de las palabras en una oración es muy importante. Observa estas dos oraciones. Ambas contienen las mismas palabras pero no dicen los mismo:
The policeman arrested the thief
The thief arrested the policeman Una Oración Simple puede tener seis partes, pero no siempre tiene esa misma cantidad. Estudia la siguiente tabla y nota cómo la columna nro. 6 (When?) puede estar al principio o al final de la oración. 6

1 When?

Last week

2 Who? Which? What?

3 Action

I I

went had

The play

was

I A young man and a young woman They

did not enjoy were sitting

4 Who? Which? What?

5 How?

6 Where?

When?

to the theatre a very good seat. very interesting. it.

were talking

behind me.

loudly

Algunos adverbios (por ejemplo always, also, probably) van con el verbo en medio de una oración.
Tom always goes to work by car
We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry Estudia estas reglas. (puede haber excepciones) 1- Si el verbo es una palabra (goes/fells/cooked, etc) , el adverbio usualmente va antes del verbo


Tom always goes to work by car
Observa que estos adverbios (always/often/also, etc) van antes de Have to
Jim never phones me. I always have to phone him 2- Los adverbios van después de am/is/are/was/were:
We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry. 3- Si el verbo es de dos o más palabras (can remember/doesn’t smoke/has been stolen, etc) al adverbio va después del primer verbo (can/doen’t/has, etc)
I can never remember his name
Ann doesn’t usually smoke
Observa que probably va después del negative:
I probably won’t see you
También usamos all y both en esta posición:
We all felt ill after the meal

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

5 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
My parents are both teachers
We are all going out this evening A veces usamos is/will/did, etc en lugar de repetir parte de una oración. Observa la posición de always/never, etc en estas oraciones.
He always says he won’t be late but he always is
I’ve never done it and I never will

Tiempos Verbales Present Tenses

Presente perfecto Sujeto + have / has + pasado participio Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Cuando hay conexión con el presente. Ej.
I have washed my car (it is clean now)
Para dar información nueva o anunciar un acontecimiento reciente. Ej.
I have lost my purse. Can you help me?
Para hablar sobre experiencias personales o acontecimientos de la vida. Ej.
I have been to America twice El ‘present perfect simple’ conecta / une el pasado y el presente de una manera parecida al pretérito perfecto en español. Si decimos que algo ha ocurrido ('has happened'), pensamos del pasado y del presente a la vez como si hiciésemos un puente del pasado al presente. Ejemplo: - I can’t do my homework because I’ve lost my book. - No puedo hacer mis deberes porque he perdido mi libro. Así que muchas veces podemos cambiar una frase del ‘present perfect simple’ al ‘present simple’ y queda con un significado parecido.


I’ve lost my book I don’t have it now
Have you seen the new Leonardo Di Caprio film Do you know it.
Your sister has left the door open The door is open now
Hasn’t Danny got married yet? Is he still single?
I’ve finally found a job I have a job now El ‘present perfect’ es usado frecuentemente con las siguientes expresiones de tiempo: Ever and never
Have you ever been to Scotland? / ¿Has estado alguna vez en Escocia?
I’ve never eaten paella. / Nunca he comido paella. Just


I’ve just made tea, would you like a cup? / Acabo de hacer té. ¿Quieres una taza?
Ana and Jesús have just had a baby / Ana y Jesús acaban de tener un niño.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

6 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Recently and lately
I’ve recently passed the F.C.E. exam and I’m studying for the C.A.E. / Acabo de aprobar el exámen de FCE y estoy estudiando para el CAE.
Have you seen John lately? / ¿Has visto a John ultimamente? So far


I’ve had three beers so far this evening and it’s only eight o’clock! / He tomado hasta ahora tres cervezas esta tarde y sólo son las ocho. Yet and already 'yet' - normalmente se utiliza en frases interrogativas y va al final de la oración. Se usa cuando esperamos que algo va a pasar en el futuro, no en el pasado ni en el presente.


Have you done your homework yet? / ¿Has terminado ya los deberes?
I don’t think Manoli has done the shopping yet. / Creo que Manoli todavía no ha hecho la compra. 'already' - se usa en frases afirmativas e interrogativas y normalmente va detrás de los verbos auxiliares o modales y delante de los demás verbos. Con 'already' decimos que algo está en el presente o el pasado, no en el futuro.
Yes, I’ve already finished my homework / Sí, ya he terminado mis deberes En Inglés británico yet y already acompaña habitualmente a los tiempos perfectos. En Inglés Americano prefieren usar los tiempos pasados. Compara:
Have you phoned your mother yet? (UK) Did you phone your mother yet? (USA)
I’ve already phoned her (UK) I already phoned her (USA) Since and for 'For' - (how long something has lasted) Se usa para decir cuánto tiempo ha durado una acción. En español suele decirse ‘desde hace’.
We’ve had this computer for about six months. / Tenemos esta computadora desde hace unos seis meses. 'Since' - (when something started) Se usa como una referencia a un punto de tiempo cuando algo empezó. En español suele decirse ‘desde’ o ‘desde que’.


We’ve had this car since January / Tenemos este coche desde enero. Comparar:


I’ve known Eric since 1989.

I’ve known Eric for 15 years (si estamos en 2004)

Presente perfecto continuo Sujeto + have / has + been + (verbo + ing) Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Cuando hablamos sobre un periodo de tiempo que continua hasta el presente. Ej.
I have been feeling very tired lately
Para describir una actividad que ha tomado mucho tiempo. Ej.
Where have you been? I have been playing rugby
Para enfatizar la duración de tiempo que ha tomado una actividad. Ej.
I have been waiting for an hour and she hasn’t phoned yet

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

7 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Past Tenses

Pasado Continuo Sujeto + was / were + (verbo + ing) Usamos este tiempo verbal
Para describir una acción que estaba incompleta cuando otra acción sucedió. Ej:
While I was doing my homework the phone rang

Pasado perfecto Sujeto + had + pasado participio Usamos este tiempo verbal:
Usamos este tiempo verbal para describir un evento que sucedió antes de que otro evento en el pasado. Ej.
When I arrived at the airport, the plane had taken off


Para hablar sobre dos tiempos a la vez: el pasado y otro pasado anterior a este.
I lived in Spain for 10 years, but I had also lived there for 5 years before that. (Viví en España 10 años pero anteriormente también había vivido aquí 5 años.)

Pasado perfecto continuo Sujeto + had + been + (verbo + ing) Usamos este tiempo verbal para expresar por cuánto tiempo algo ha estado sucediendo antes de que algo más sucediera. Ej.
He had been waiting for twenty minutes when the bus finally arrived
Utilizamos este tiempo para referirnos a eventos pasados que eran continuos y fueron llevado a cabo durante un periodo de tiempo en el pasado. Ejemplo
He had been waiting for his parcel for one week. Él había estado esperando su paquete durante una semana


I had been studying all morning. (Había estado estudiando toda la mañana)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

8 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
También podemos utilizar el pasado perfecto continuo para mencionar una acción continua en el pasado que tiene consecuencias en el presente o en el pasado especificando cuando comenzó la acción. Podemos expresar el momento en el que la acción continua empezó utilizando un adverbio de tiempo o una frase que indique un punto en el tiempo. Ejemplo
Since he watched that film, he had not been sleeping properly. Desde que vio esa película, él no había estado durmiendo bien

Future tenses

Futuro simple Sujeto + will + verbo infinitive Este tiempo verbal es usado:
Para expresar un evento general o indefinido en el futuro. Ej.
I will probably go on holliday next month
Para ofrecer colaboración en algo. Ej.
That bag is too heavy for you. I will help you with it
Para pedirle algo a alguien. Ej.
Will you take it to the library for me, please?

Futuro progresivo Esta forma del futuro es usada en inglés con mayor frecuencia que en español. Su estructura es la siguiente:

sujeto+ futuro de 'to be' + gerundio del verbo a conjugar


You will be flying to Paris tomorrow at this hour / Mañana a esta hora estarás volando hacia Paris Sirve para indicar una acción que se desarrollará en el futuro. Pueden ser acciones o situaciones que no conocemos cuándo exactamente se producirán aunque también puede expresar acciones ya planificadas y que se producirán en un determinado momento.


They will be leaving tomorrow / Ellos saldrán mañana Las formas negativa, interrogativa e interrogativa-negativa se construyen de forma análoga a la explicada para el futuro simple. FORMA NEGATIVA

FORMA INTERROGATIVA

FORMA INT. NEGATIVA

I shall / will not be playing no estaré jugando

shall / will I be playing? ¿estaré jugando?

shall / will I not be playing? ¿no estaré jugando?

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

9 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Futuro perfecto Sirve para indicar la duración de una acción. Expresa una acción que terminará en un determinado momento del futuro. Suele ir acompañado de la preposición 'by'.
They will have written the novel by next month / Ellos habrán escrito la novela el próximo mes. Su estructura es la siguiente:

sujeto + futuro de 'to have' + participio

FORMA AFIRMATIVA FORMA NEGATIVA FORMA INTERROGATIVA I shall have played Yo habré jugado

I shall not have played Yo no habré jugado

Shall I have played? ¿Habré jugado?

INTERROGATIVO-NEGATIVA: Shall I not have played? / ¿No habré jugado?

futuro perfecto progresivo Sirve para expresar acciones que se desarrollan hasta un momento determinado del futuro en el que pueden finalizar o no.


Next year I shall have been studying ten years / El año próximo llevaré diez años estudiando. Su estructura es la siguiente:

sujeto + futuro de 'to have' + participio de 'to be' + gerundio FORMA AFIRMATIVA FORMA NEGATIVA I shall have been playing Yo habré estado jugando

I shall not have been playing Yo no habré estado jugado

FORMA INTERROGATIVA INTERROG-NEGATIVA Shall I have been playing? ¿Habré estado jugando?

Shall I not have been playing? ¿No habré estado jugando?

Más ejemplos: Afirmativo
I will have been going to London - ( Habré estado yendo a London )
He will have been going to London - ( El habrá estado yendo a London ) Negativo


I won't have been going to London - ( No habré estado yendo a London )
He won't have been going to London - ( El no habrá estado yendo a London ) Interrogativo
Will I have been going to London ? - ( ¿ Habré estado yendo a London ? )
Will he have been going to London ? - ( ¿ Habrá él estado yendo a London ? )

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

10 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Futuro con “Going to” Sujeto + Verbo to be + going to + verbo en infinitive Este tiempo verbal es usado:
Cuando hay algo en la situación presente que muestra que algo sucederá en un futuro inmediato. Ej.
Look at these clouds. It is going to rain
Para expresar una intención o evento definido en el futuro. Ej.
I am fed up with walking every day. I am going to buy a car

Oraciones Condicionales Una oración condicional tiene dos oraciones: La oración con IF y la oración principal. Hay cuatro tipos principales de oraciones condicionales: Conditional I, Conditional II, Conditional III y Universal Conditions

Usos: Usamos oraciones condicionales para hablar sobre la relación entre dos eventos y sus consecuencias:


If our survey indicates the possibility of oil (event), then we will do some drilling (consequence) Conditional I Aquí el hablante ve el evento como una posibilidad real


If the oil field is productive, we will recover our exploration costs in a short time Conditional II Aquí el hablante ve el evento como una posibilidad remota


If there was a blowout, we would evacuate the rig immediately Conditional III Aquí el hablante reconoce que el evento es imposible, no puede concretarse


If we hadn’t made this find, we would have leased out our tankers Universal Conditions Aquí el hablante indica que la consecuencia siempre sigue al evento


If a rock is permeable, it allows water or other fluids, such as oil, to pass through it Nota: 1) Estas expresiones significan “IF” y “ONLY IF” Provided / providing (that) on condition that

so long as


Provided that the results of our surveys are positive, we will continue to drill here

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

11 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” 2) Estas expresiones indicant que un evento future podría o no suceder In case In the case of in the event that in the event of


In case of corrosion, stop all activity 3) Unless means “if…not”


Do not return to the rig unless the supervisor gives you instructions to do so

Frases Verbales Ejemplos -

Next month the production department will start to control stock levels every week. Next month the production department will start controlling stock levels every week. Do you like working on the assembly line? Do you like to work on the assembly line?

Formas Después de algunos verbos podemos usar: Verbo ...ing o infinitive + to


We will continue to automate the process
We will continue automating the process
You should never try to operate this machinery unless you are wearing protective clothing.
You should never try operating this machinery unless you are wearing protective clothing. Usos: A veces el significado es el mismo, a veces es diferente 1) Igual significado: Podemos usar ambas formas después de estos verbos Begin
continua
intend
prefer
start


We prefer to inspect stock levels on a monthly basis.
We prefer inspecting them twice a month. 2) Diferente significado Podemos usar ambas formas después de estos verbos pero con un significado diferente Forget
remember
try


Please remember to check the bill of materials. (Don't forget)
l remember checking the bill of materials. (I checked it and l remember it)
We tried to mix the two chemicals that you delivered (we attempted to do it)
We tried mixing the two chemicals that you delivered. (we experimented with it) 3) Pequeña diferencia de significado


The employees like rotating jobs, as it Increases their motivation. (They enjoy it)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

12 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
We like to use a subcontractor to maintain this equipment. (it is a good thing to do) Observación: 1) We would like ______________________ (as is) 2) We prefer to use organic products rather than chemical ones. We prefer organic products rather than chemical ones. We prefer carrying out thorough lab tests to field trials. We prefer carrying out thorough lab tests to trialing the products in the field. We would like to introduce quality circles next year. (not we would like introducing)

Voz Activa vs Voz Pasiva Cada oración en Voz Activa tiene al menos 2 partes: Un sujeto [1] + un verbo en forma activa
We normally produce a preliminary analysis [1] [2] Cada oración en Voz Pasiva tiene al menos 2 partes Un sujeto [1] + un verbo en voz pasiva [2]
A preliminary analysis is normally produced [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Regla: Se introduce el verbo To Be en el tiempo del verbo principal. El verbo principal pasa a Participio. Los auxiliares o verbos modales se mantienen. (Can/must/should/etc). El objeto directo de la Voz Activa pasa a ser el Sujeto de la Voz Pasiva. Puede incorporarse la partícula BY en caso que fuese necesario.

Spanish is spoken in Argentina (sujeto) Argentinians speak Spanish ACTIVA (objeto)

PASIVA

Usos: Usamos un verbo en voz activa para describir acciones y eventos. Por ejemplo:
Paper still plays a vital role in our lives –newspapers tell us the events of the day, and books entertain and educate us. Paper has been with us since 105 AD. The Chinese first used it to make records; later it spread to all parts of the world. Podemos usar la Voz Pasiva en las siguientes situaciones: 1) No es relevante el sujeto que realiza la acción. Ej.
Ancient paper was made entirely of rags, modern paper is made from wood pulp –a faster and cheaper alternative. 2) En descripción de procesos. Ej.
First the logs are stripped of barks, cut into smaller sections, and made into chips. The chips are put into a large tank called a digester and allowed to stew in a chemical mix under pressure. The wood pulp that is created by this process is then

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

13 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” washed to remove any chemicals and pressed through screens to remove chunks and foreign objects. The pulp is then drained of water to form a mass that is then bleached and washed again. 3) En lenguaje impersonal. Ej.
The chemicals in this process are toxic: safety clothing must be worn Este es el estilo de una orden o instrucción escrita. Estudia la siguiente lista de las formas del verbo en pasiva. (pp = participio pasado) Verb Tense Present simple Present continuous Future (will) Future (going to) Past simple Past continuous

Structure am/are/is + pp am/are/is being + pp will be + pp am/are/is going to be + pp was/were + pp was/were being + pp

Present perfect Past perfect

have/has been + pp had been + pp

Future perfect

will have been + pp

Example Spanish is spoken here. Your questions are being answered. It’ll be painted by next week. Terry is going to be made redundant next year. We were invited to the party, but we didn’t go. The hotel room was being cleaned when we got back from shopping. The President of America has been shot. When he got home he found that all of his money had been stolen. Our baby will have been born before Christmas.

Las Formas Verbales en Activa y Pasiva Active and Passive Verb Forms

Activo – con el verbo ‘to live’ (vivir) • • • • • • • • •

• • • • • •

Present simple – I live, you live, we live, he/she/it lives, we live, they live Present progressive (or continuous) – I am living, you are living etc. Present perfect simple – I have lived, you have lived, he/she/it has lived etc. Present perfect progressive – I have been living, you have been living etc. Past simple – I lived, you lived, he/she/it lived etc. Past progressive – I was living, you were living etc. Past perfect simple – I had lived, you had lived etc. Past perfect progressive – I had been working, you had been working etc. Future simple – I will work, you will work, you will work, he/she/it will work, we will work, they will work. Future progressive – I will be working, you will be working etc. Future perfect simple – I will have worked, you will have worked etc. Future perfect progressive – I will have been working, you will have been working etc. Infinitives – (to) work, (to) be working, (to) have worked, (to) have been working -ing forms – working, having worked Past participle - worked

Pasivo – con el verbo ‘to make’ (hacer) • • • • • •

Present simple – it is made, they are made etc. Present progressive – it is being made, they are being made etc. Present perfect – it has been made, they have been made etc. Past simple – it was made, they were made etc. Past progressive – it was being made, they were being made etc. Past perfect – it had been made, they had been made etc.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

14 • •

•

Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Future simple - it will be made, they will be made etc. Future perfect – it will have been made, they will have been made etc. ‘Going to’ future – it is going to be made, they are going to be made etc.

Estilo indirecto (Reported speech) Compara la diferencia entre el estilo directo y el indirecto: Estilo directo: - He said: “I don´t want to go home yet.” Estilo indirecto o reported speech: - He said (that) he didn´t want to go home yet. • •

En estilo indirecto that es opcional. Si se incluye, el registro es algo más formal que si se omite. Cuando los verbos como say, ask, tell, etc. (reporting verbs) están en pasado, cambia el tiempo verbal del resto de la oración en el estilo indirecto. La excepción se produce cuando hablamos de algo que aún tiene validez en el presente:


They told me: “Water boils at 100 degrees”
They told me (that) water boils at 100 degrees.
She said: “He has to work all weekend”
She said (that) he had to work all weekend. Cambios de tiempo verbal en el estilo indirecto: Estilo directo Presente simple I enjoy reading comics. Presente continuo She´s washing the dishes. Pasado simple I worked for an art gallery. Pasado continuo He was making dinner. Presente perfecto We have watched all those films. Futuro I´ll post those letters. Can I can´t wait any longer. Must I must take that train. May She may lend me some money.

Estilo indirecto (Reported speech) Pasado simple He said he enjoyed reading comics Pasado continuo He said she was washing the dishes. Pasado perfecto He said he had worked for an art gallery. Pasado perfecto continuo He said he had been making dinner. Pasado perfecto He said they had watched all those films. Condicional simple (would) He said he would post those letters. Could He said he couldn´t wait any longer. Had to He said he had to take that train. Might He said she might lend him some money.

Reporting verbs: - Verbo + (that): say, claim, explain, insist, agree, complain, deny, reply. - Verbo + pronombre objeto + (that): tell (She told me that...) - Verbo + infinitivo con to: offer, refuse, agree, promise...

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

15 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” - Verbo + for + verbo(-ing): apologise, thank

Expresiones que cambian en estilo indirecto: Estilo directo Pronombres personales y objeto

Estilo indirecto (Reported speech) She said she didn´t know me. He said they were late.

“I don´t know you” “We are late”

Posesivos He said that wasn´t his book.

“That´s not my book”

Adverbios y expresiones de tiempo the next day / the following day that day the day before / the previous day the following week the week before, the previous week then / at that moment there that week

Tomorrow Today Yesterday Next week Last week Now Here This week

Peticiones e imperativos en estilo indirecto: (not) to + infinitivo - “Shut up!”
He asked me to shut up. - “Don´t open that window”
He ordered them not to open that window. Preguntas en estilo indirecto: al pasar de estilo directo a indirecto las preguntas tienen el orden sujeto + verbo. Hay que diferenciar entre dos tipos de preguntas: 1) Preguntas con palabra interrogativa (what, who, where, etc.):
He asked: “Where are you?”
He asked me where I was. 2) Preguntas cuya respuesta es sí o no (sin palabra interrogativa).
She asked: are you ok?
She asked me if / whether I was ok. Sugerencias en estilo indirecto: suggest + ing / that should...
They suggested leaving early.
They suggested that we should leave early.

Oraciones: Causa -

-

The application of civil engineering techniques has led to more secure structures. Tighter environmental controls have made many companies use cleaner sources of energy. These stains result from the extensive use of dyes. We have moved over to water turbines because they offer significant cost savings. Many accidents in mining happen due to poar security procedures.

Forma:

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

16 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Podemos expresar la relación entre una causa y un efecto de muchas maneras: 1) Verbos y frases verbales

A= la causa

B= verbo que une la causa con el efecto

C= el efecto

Estos Verbos y Frases Verbales tienen un significado similar Account for a cause
result in
bring about
give rise to
be responsible for Podemos revertir el orden en la oración:

A= el efecto

B= verbo que une el efecto con la causa

C= la causa

Aquí hay otros verbos y frases verbales con similar significado Arise from
be attributable to
stem from 2) Oraciones de Causa
We have moved over to water turbines because they offer significant cost savings Aquí la conjunción une el efecto y la causa. Otras conjunciones que cumplen una función similar son; since y as 3) Frases de Causa:
Many accidents in mining happen due to poor security procedures Otras expresiones con similar significado son: As a consequence of
because of
on account of
owing to Usos Observa cómo en el siguiente texto se emplean las frases antes vistas

Obligaciones y Requerimientos Forma: Podemos observar la noción de obligación en los siguientes encabezados:

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

17 • • •

Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Obligación de hacer algo Obligación de no hacer algo, es decir prohibición No obligación

También podemos ver la noción obligación desde el punto de vista de la persona/situación que causa la obligación y la persona que recibe la obligación. Este es un listado de verbos que puede emplear “quien obliga” 1) Obligar a alguien a hacer algo 2) Obligar a alguien a no hacer algo 3) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo

Compel
demand
forcé
make
oblige
require Ban
forbid
prohibit Not compel
not forcé
not make
not require

Este es un listado de verbos que puede ser empleado desde el punto de vista de “quien es obligado” 4) Obligado a hacer algo 5) Obligado a no hacer algo 6) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo

Be forced to
be required to
be supposed to
have to
must
need to Be prohibited from
cannot
may not
must not
not be allowed to
not be permitted to Do not need to
need not
no have to

Usos 1) Obligar a alguien a hacer algo
We require the general contractor to supervise and co-ordinate the Project
The general contractor made the sub-contractor sign a compensation clause for delays. (No: made the sub-contractor to sign) 2) Obligar a alguien a no hacer algo
The use of asbestos is banned
Fire regulations prohibit builders from using flammable materials 3) No obligar a alguien a hacer algo
The construction engineers don’t normally forcé painters, plasterers and plumbers to use specific products 4) Ser obligado a hacer algo
The contractor must apply flame-retardant chemicals to slow down the spread of fire 5) Ser obligado a no hacer algo
A nonload-bearing wall must not support any other load except its own weight 6) No obligado
In this type of soil we needn’t dig the foundations deeper than 10 metres.
Architects don’t have to/need to have the same qualifications as quantity surveyors

Oraciones: Causa y Efecto Ejemplos -

We are going to convert the assembly line because we believe I will improve overall effeciviness Due to the frequent faults in finished products, we are going to install new machinery.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” As a result of the high cost of local raw materials, we are going to start importing from China. Plastics are a versatile family of materials; therefore they are suitable for a wide range of packaging applications. Since PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a clear, tough polymer, it is ideal for use in soft drink bottles.

Formas: 1) Oraciones de Causa Aquí una conjunción subordinante une el efecto y la causa.
The automotive industry uses plastics because they are durable, resistant to corrosion and lightweight. Estas también son conjunciones subordinantes: AS – SINCE 2) Frases de causa: Aquí una frase adverbial introduce la causa
Polystyrene manufacturers phased out the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the late 1980s because of concerns about the ozone layer. Otras expresiones con similar significado son: As a consequence of
due to
on account of
owing to Siempre se coloca una frase sustantiva después de estas expresiones:
Because of a large number of back orders, we have put extra workers on the night shift. (not: because of the number of back orders is large) 3) Conectores de causa: Aquí una causa en una oración es unida a un efecto en la oración siguiente por un conector:
The maintenance team are here; therefore we’ll need to shut down the machinery after this shift. Otras palabras y expresiones con similar significado son: Accordingly
as a consequence/result
because of this
consequently
hence (formal)
so
that’s why (informal)
that’s (the reason)
therefore
thus (formal) Usos: Observa el siguiente diálogo que ejemplifica el uso de estas oraciones de causa y efecto: A: Why are we reviewing our quality control practices? B: Because management is thinking of introducing a zero defect production initiative. So we are starting a project group to look at current practices in production. A: So, that’s why everyone has been called to the meeting. B: Exactly. We’ve scheduled a preliminary meeting on account of this new initiative. A: But I thought productivity levels had increased. B: Yes, but because of this it seems that the reject rate has risen, too.

Escala de Probabilidades Ejemplos:

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

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Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” The term engineering can have different meanings A scientist is unlikely to be able to solve engineering problems. We are likely to see significant advances in robotics in the coming years. The generators and turbines are bound to use a lot of electrical power. These rainproof seals can’t possibly let water into the switchboard.

Formas y Usos: Si consideramos que la escala de probabilidades va de una certeza del 100% a una certeza del 0%, podemos identificar los siguientes segmentos. (Los números son una indicación general y no valores exactos)

Ahora observemos cada una de estas categorías en términos de lenguaje: Certainty

Probability

Possibility Improbability

Impossibility

I am (absolutely) sure / certain/ positive that power requirements will increase. Power requirements will definitely / certainly increase Power requirements are certain / sure / bound to increase It is (very) likely / probable that the pumps will use more electricity The pumps are (quite) likely to use more electricity They could use more electricity We may / might need more pumps on site It is (very/highly) unlikely/improbable that the pumps will use more electricity. The pumps probably won’t use more electricity The pumps are (quite) unlikely to use more electricity The pumps shouldn’t use more electricity I am sure/certain/positive that power requirements won’t increase Power requirements definitely/certainly won’t increase Power requirements can’t (possibly) increase

Usos: 1) Definitely y Certainly Observe la posición de los adverbios:
We will definitely / certainly replace the fuses (después de will)
The fuses definitely / certainly won’t fall (antes de won’t) 2) Likely y unlikely Estos adjetivos pueden tomar dos tipos de construcción
It is likely / unlikely that the pumps will use more electricity. (adjetivo + that + oración)
The pumps are likely / unlikely to use more electricity. (adjetivo + to + infinitivo) 3) May y Might Algunos creen que hay una pequeña diferencia en la “fuerza” entre estas dos palabras
We may need more pumps on site (50% de probabilidades)
We might need more pumps on site. (45% de probabilidades)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

20 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Oraciones de Relativo

(Relative Clauses)

Ejemplos: - Logistics is the business function which controls the movement of physical materials in a factory - Our logistics department, which controls the movement of physical materials in the factory, is headed by Barry Perks. - A mine is a place where ores, coal, and precious stones may be obtained. - A miner is a person who works in a mine - You need to speak to John Martin, who is in charge of the coal mine. Forma: Las oraciones de relativo nos proporcionan información adicional sobre algo ya mencionado. Estas oraciones son una clase de oración subordinada:
The man who lives next door is Italian.
who se refiere a “the man”
She´s got a cat which she found in the street.
which se refiere a “a cat” Los pronombres relativos principales en inglés son who y which (que a veces se sustituyen por that) y equivalen en español a “que”. Who se utiliza para referirnos a personas y which a cosas o animales. Más ejemplos:
I like those houses which have a garden.
The dress which she bought was very expensive.
These are the cakes which Paul likes.
They are looking for someone who speaks Japanese.
Is that the woman who lives upstairs?
That´s the boy who goes to school with Jill.

Hay dos clases de Oración de Relativo: 1) Defining relative clauses Ejemplos:
The man who works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house which has been painted is my aunt´s. En los ejemplos anteriores no se puede omitir la oración de relativo, ya que ésta proporciona información esencial para poder identificar a “the man” y “that house”. 1. That: en las defining relative clauses, who y which pueden sustituirse por that:
The man that works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house that has been painted is my aunt´s. 2. Omisión de who, which o that: cuando estas palabras actúan como objeto de la oración, y no como sujeto, pueden omitirse.
The book which/that you bought for me.
The book you bought for me.
The person who/that I met on holidays.
The person I met on holidays. Sin embargo, no se pueden omitir en estos casos porque actúan como sujeto:
The man who/that works in the bar is a friend of mine.
That house which/that has been painted is my aunt´s.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

21 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” 2) Non-defining relative clauses Ejemplos:
My friend Sarah, who lives in Germany, has won the lottery.
We went to see a film yesterday, which was quite good. En estos ejemplos la oración de relativo nos presenta información adicional, pero no esencial. Podríamos omitir la oración de relativo y el sentido general del enunciado sería el mismo. 1. Comas: estas oraciones llevan siempre coma delante del pronombre relativo. 2. Who y which: no es posible sustituirlos por that, ni omitirlos. Si “who” o “which” van en medio, necesito dos comas, una para abrir y otra para cerrar. Ejemplo:
My friend, who you don't know, is coming today. (Mi amigo, a quien no conoces, viene hoy.) ¿Para qué nos sirve saber distinguir entre “identifying” y “non-identifying relative clauses”? La distinción entre indentifying y non-identifying relative clauses nos sirve para saber cuándo utilizar “that”. Estudia esta regla: • “That” se utiliza generalmente para identificar personas y cosas en las “identifying relative clauses” (no se usa generalmente en las non-identifying) Ejemplo:
The woman that you know. También podría decir: “The woman who you know.” La mujer que tú conoces. Nota: Con “that” estoy identificando a la mujer. Recuerda: “that” se utiliza generalmente para sustituir a “who” o “which” en oraciones que identifican a la persona o cosa. No se se sele utilizar en oraciones en las que ya se ha identificado a la persona cosa: Por ejemplo, no decirmos: “Mr. Smith, my friend, that you know. Las preposiciones van al final en las oraciones de relativo:
That´s the boy (who) I was talking to.
Tim is the friend (who)she went to the cinema with. Excepción: puede utilizarse una preposición + whom en lugar de situar who al final, pero resulta más formal:
The girl (who) he talked to
The girl to whom he talked.
The friend (who) Tom went out with
The friend with whom Tom went out. La siguiente tabla muestra el rango de pronombres relativos: Persona Cosa Lugar Who/that Which/that Sujeto Who/whom/that/ø Which/that/ ø Where Objeto Whose whose Posesivo

Tiempo

Razón

When

Why

¿Cuál es la diferencia entre “who” y “whom”? Whom es más formal que who, lo cual quiere decir que cuando queramos hablar de forma más elegante utilizaremos "whom" en vez de "who".

Oraciones Subordinadas de Propósito y Resultado Ejemplos:

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

22 -

Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Benton have defined quality standards (in order) to meet minimum product specifications Last year Markham introduced new quality standards so (that) they detected defective products before completion Mansell have initiated a quality review programme so as to meet customer expectations. We sample and monitor all process so that customers’ needs are exceeded For zero defects to be achieved, we will have to introduce tighter prevention controls

Formas: Las oraciones de Resultado y Propósito son oraciones subordinadas. Hay tres posibles construcciones: 1) (in order / so as) to + infinitivo
Benton have defined quality control standards (in order) to meet minimum product specifications 2) Una conjunción subordinante seguida de un verbo:
We sample and monitor all processes so that customer needs are exceded (Propósito)
Last year Markham introduced new quality standards so (that) they detected defective products before completion. (Resultado) 3) For + sustantivo seguido de un verbo en infinitive + to
For zero defects to be achieved, we will have to introduce tighter prevention controls (=so that zero defects can be achieved, we…) Las principales conjunciones subordinantes son: in order that
so that Antes de un Verbo en Infinitivo + to, se puede usar: for
in order (to)
so as (to) Observa las formas negativas
So as not to pay for unnecessary reworking, we simple all raw materials
In order not to lose customers, we have a policy of continuous process improvement Usos: Las oraciones de Propósito responden a la pregunta Why (¿por qué?) o What…for (¿para qué?). Ellas presentan el propósito de la información en la oración principal. Las Oraciones de Resultado también responden las preguntas Why y What…for. En contraste con las de Resultado, éstas miran al pasado para ver el resultado de una acción:
Electricity is usually transmitted at the highest voltages possible to minimize energy losses (propósito)
We tied together the electric utilities into large systems so that power was exchanged (resultado) Observa las diferencias entre las construcciones de las oraciones de Resultado y Propósito: 1) Podemos usar to, in order to y so as to + infinitive cuando el sujeto de ambas oraciones es el mismo:
Energy is generated from different fuels in order to avoid reliance on one source 2) Usamos so that o in order that cuando el sujeto de las oraciones es diferente:
Electricity producers are able to Exchange power so that one utility can assist another 3) Usamos so that + una oración para las oraciones de resultado
These electric utilities were then combined into larger systems so that power was exchanged Observación: Las siguientes oraciones están mal:
We use coal for make energy. (to make)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

23 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
We changed to gas for to make energy. (in order to make)
We started producing hydroelectric power for makinng cleaner energy. (to make)

Adjectives and adverbs Ejemplos -

Rand D aims to develop new products and the means to produce them cheaply. Qualitative research investigates current product positioning; and why customers currently use a particular product. A coal field is an area containing significant coal deposits; the deposits in this coal field have been significantly reduced in recent years.

Formas: Los adjetivos y los adverbios son unidades gramaticales 1) Aquí hay algunos sufijos típicos para adjetivos y formas adjetivas -ate / -ite -ful -al / -ial -ive -able / -ible

Accurate Harmful Artificial Active Renewable

-ic -ous -ing -ed -ant / -ent

Scientific Dangerous Mining Finished Transparent

2) Otros adjetivos, particularmente las “palabras cortas”, no tienen un sufijo o terminación Bad
especial big
good
old
small
young 3) La mayoría de los adverbios se forma agregando –LY al adjetivo Harmful Active Scientific Dangerous Transparent Artificial Adjetivo Harmfully Actively Scientifically Dangerously Transparently Artificially Adverbio 4) Algunos adjetivos tienen la misma forma que los adverbios early
fast
hard
late
straight
A cage provides fast access to the mine (adjetivo)
The cage raises and lowers miners fast (adverbio) Usos: Adjetivo Adverbio 1) Para dar más información sobre un 1) Para dar más información sobre el verbo sustantivo
The miners reached the surface safely
We carry out pure research
How did they reach the surface? Safely
What type of research? Pure research 2) Después del verbo To Be 2) Para dar más información sobre un adjetivo
All research is scientific
The mine is extremely dangerous
How dangerous is the mine? Extremely 3) Para dar más información sobre un adverbio
Miners work very hard 4) Para dar más información sobre una oración
Firstly, I’ll present the coal cutting equipment.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

24 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Preposiciones de Tiempo Ejemplos: -

The timetable looks like this. We will install the software on Monday afternoon. That means your system will be out of action from 2 o’clock till about 5 o’clock. We also need to download some programs before starting the system again. Then we'll start testing. That'll take until Wednesday. After that, we need to configure all the modules. We hope to finish that by Wednesday evening. That means that you'll be up and running with a brand new system on Thursday morning. So, please inform everyone that we will need to shut down the system next Monday.

Formas: Una preposición va antes del sustantivo: on Monday afternoon Cuando la preposición está seguida de un verbo, usamos verbo + ing
We also need to download some programs before starting the system again Las preposiciones de tiempo más importantes son: After
at
before
between
by
during
for
from…in
on
since
to…
until / till
up to
The drug testing programme will start on 1st July
We hope to get approval for sale of the drug by 2006 Usos: 1) At, in, on y by At + la hora: at 8 o’clock On + días de la semana: on Tuesday In + partes del día: in the morning (at night)

On + dates: on 1st July In + meses y años: in August By + fecha límite: we hope to get approval by 2005

2) By y until / till Usamos BY para una acción que sucede antes o en una fecha límite:
We hope to finish configuring the system by Wednesday evening. Usamos UNTIL / TILL para una acción que continúa hasta una fecha límite.
We will work on configuring the system until/till Wednesday evening. 3) Sin preposición En algunas expresiones de tiempo no usamos preposición de tiempo a- Antes de this, last y next
We will need to shut down the system next Monday. (not: on next Monday) b- Con expresiones de “velocidad” y de frecuencia
Megahertz is a unit of measurement equal to one million electrical vibrations or cycles a second. (not: In a second).
This laser printer prints twenty pages of text a minute. (not: in a minute) También se puede decir per second, per minute, etc

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

25 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Preposiciones de Lugar Ejemplos: -

Let me give you a brief update about developments in the production area. On Monday, components will be moved from the old storage area to the new one. This means that fork lift trucks will need to move components out of warehouse 1 and into warehouse 2. You will find more details in the email l sent last week. There are two stages to the movement of old parts. In the new storage area, the parts will be stored on pallets on the top two shelves. From there they will be moved to their final destination according to the plan in the email attachment.

Forma: Una preposición va antes de un sustantivo: in the production area [preposition] [nonn]

Las preposiciones de lugar más importantes son: At
from
in
into
on
out of
to
Oil is transported from the oilfield to the terminal by pipeline.
Corrosion in the pipes is extremely dangerous. Usos: 1) AT: Usamos AT para describer un lugar en general más que en términos específicos:
In the event of a blowout at the terminal we evacuate everyone immediately.
We employ some 30 people at the pumping station. Cf Twenty men sleep in the terminal. I.e. inside 2) TO Usamos TO para describer movimiento hacia un lugar
Then the oil is transported to the terminal.
The roughnecks fly out to the oil rig on a Sunday evening. 3) FROM Usamos FROM para describir movimiento desde un lugar
After the blowout we managed to pull everyone from the water.
The safety officer has just arrived from headquarters. 4) IN - INTO Usamos IN para describir un lugar
Corrosion in the pipes is extremely dangerous. Usamos INTO para describir movimiento en un lugar
The drill bit is fitted into the drill. 5) INTO – OUT OF Ambos describen movimiento, describen movimientos opuestos
Drilling mud is pumped into and out of the well during drilling. 6) ON ONTO Usamos ON con objetos que tienen una superficie
We've found some new deposits on the Continental Shelf.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

26 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Usamos ONTO para describir movimiento sobre un lugar que tiene superficie
The oil is then loaded onto tankers. (Here the tanker is seen as a two-dimensional floating object.) cf. The oil is then loaded into tankers. (Here the tanker is seen as a three-dimensional object.)

Cuantificadores (Quantifiers) Ejemplos: - If you have no customer feedback, it is very difficult to understand their needs. That's where qualitative research comes in. It has many common uses. It can help you to understand why some customers buy and use a product. It can also investigate a lot of alternative communication messages. Most of our clients use our services to understand their customers better. And all of them use this information in the development of new products. Formas: Usamos cuantificadores constables con sustantivos plurals contables. Usamos cuantificadores incontables con sustantivos incontables. Qualitative market research has many [quantifier]

If you have no [quantifier]

common uses. [countable noun]

customer feedback, it is difficult to understand their needs. [uncountable noun]

Usos Aquí hay algunos ejemplos de cuantificadores, primero en un breve diálogo y luego en un fragmento de una presentación: A: ls there much demand for civil engineers these days? B: You wouldn't believe it, but most of the vacancies are for civil engineers. A: Really? With what type of qualifications? B: All our vacancies require people with a thorough knowledge of surveying. A: Don’t most civil engineers need to about surveying? B: Yes, but there are some jobs in areas not directly linked to construction. A: Such as? B: We have a few vacancies for engineers to work in the aircraft industry A: Anything in nuclear power? B: No vacancies in that area at the moment, I’m afraid. A: Well, please let me know if anything turns up

Contrastando Ideas Ejemplos:

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

27 -

Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” Although email is a very convenient form of personal communication, most people have never sent one. But the number of users is increasing very quickly. Despite improvements in telecoms networks, connection speeds are often very slow; however ADSL promises faster connections.

Formas: We can use the following language techniques to contrast ideas: 1)

Oraciones de contraste

Estas consisten en dos oraciones: la oración principal y la oración de contraste
Even though the number of mobil phones users has Increased, call charges remain high. [ contrast clause ]

[ maÍnclause ]

Las principales conjunciones de contraste son: Although
but
even though
though
whereas
while Notar la diferencia entre BUT y las otras conjunciones:
Videoconferencing is very convenient, but (it) is not as personal as face-to-face contact. [ main clause ]

[ main clause ]


Although videoconferencing is very convenient, it is not as personal as face-to-face contact. [ contrast clause ]

[ main clause ]

2) Frases de contraste La frase de contraste consiste de: preposición (o frase preposicional) + un sustantivo
Despite improved security, hackers can still access many networks. [phrase of contrast]

La frase de contraste también puede estar al final de la oración
Hackers can still access many networks despite improved security. Las principales palabras para introducir una frase de contraste son: Despite
in spite of 3) Conjunciones de Contraste Estas palabras o expresiones unen dos oraciones las cuales están en contraste una con otra
You can download Google from many sitess worldwide. However, some are faster than others. Las principales conjunciones son: All the same (informal)
but
even so
however
nevertheless
still
yet Usos: Observa el siguiente diálogo: A: Although we can share many resources, some are not shared. Even so, we should see this as a vast improvement. B: I don't understand why all the printers aren't available to all. A: In fact, everyone can use all the printers; however, one has been designated as default for each work group.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

28 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío” A: I’d prefer to use the colour laser printer. B: I know you would, but it's very expensive to print each page in colour. And in most cases, colour isn't necessary

Verbos Modales CAN  Podemos usar can para decir que algo es posible o que alguien tiene la habilidad para hacer algo  Podemos usar can + infinitivo (can do / can see)
We can see the lake from our bedroom window
Can you speak any foreign language?
I can come and see you tomorrow if you like  The negative is can’t (=cannot)
I’m afraid I can’t come to the party on Friday

Be able to  Es posible usarlo en lugar de can, sin embargo, es más común el uso de can
Are you able to speak any foreign languages?  Can sólo tiene dos formas, can (presente) y could (pasado). Por esta razón a veces es necesario usar be able to… Compara estos ejemplos
I can´t sleep
I haven’t been able to sleep recently
Tom can come tomorrow
Tom might be able to come tomorrow.

could y was able to …  A veces could es el pasado de can. Could se usa especialmente con:

See

hear smell

taste

feel

remember

understand


When we went into the house, we could smell burning
She spoke in a very low voice, but I could understand what she said  También usamos could para decir que alguien tenía la habilidad o permiso para hacer algo
My grandfather could speak five languages
We were completely free. We could do what we wanted.  Usamos could para habilidades pero si estamos hablando sobre qué sucedió en una situación particular, usaremos was/were able to o managed to… en lugar de could
The fire spread through the building quickly but everybody was able to escape / every managed to escape (pero no could escape)
They didn’t want to come with us at first but we managed to persuade them / we were able to persuade them. (pero no could persuade) Comparar
Jack was an excellent tennis player. He could beat anybody (Tenía la habilidad para ganarle a todos)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

29 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
Jack and Alf had a game of tennis yesterday. Alf played very well but in the end Jack managed to beat him / was able to beat him. (Jack fue capaz de derrotarlo en este juego en particular)  La forma negativa couldn’t (could not) es posible en todas las situaciones
My grandfather couldn’t swim
We tried hard but we couldn’t persuade them to come with us
Alf played well but he couldn’t beat Jack

could (do) and could have (done)  Usamos could en varias formas. A veces could es el pasado de can
Listen. I can hear something (Presente)
I listened. I could hear something. (Pasado)  Pero could no sólo es usado en esta forma. Podemos usar could para hablar sobre acciones posibles en el presente o en el futuro. (especialmente para hacer sugerencias) Por ejemplo
It is a nice day. We could go for a walk
When you go to New York next month, you could stay with Barbara  También es posible usar can en estas oraciones (‘We can go for a walk). Could es “menos seguro o probable” que can. Se debe usar could y no can cuando quien habla realmente no dice “en serio” o con un sentido literal lo que dice. Por ejemplo:
I’m so angry with him. I could kill him! (Estoy tan enojado con el. Podría matarlo!)  También usamos could para decir que algo es posible ahora o en el futuro:
The phone is ringing. It could be Tom
I don’t know when they’ll be here. They could arrive at any time.  Comparemos could (do) y could have (done)
I’m so tired. I could sleep for a week (Presente)
I was so tired. I could have slept for a week. (Pasado)  Usamos could have (done) para cosas que fueron posibles pero que no sucedieron
Why did you stay at a hotel when you went to New York? You could have stayed with Barbara. (Tuviste la oportunidad de quedarte con ella pero no lo hiciste)
Jack fell off a ladder yesterday but he’s all right. He is lucky –he could have hurt himself badly. (pero no se lastimó)  Could have (done) = Would have been able to (do)
Why didn’t Liz apply for the job? She could have got it
We could have gone away if we’d had enough money

MUST y CAN’T  Usamos must para decir que estamos seguros de que algo es verdad
You’ve been travelling all day. You must be tired
Carol must get very bored in her job. She does the same thing every day  Se usa can’t para expresar que estamos seguros de que algo no es posible
You’ve just had lunch. You can’t be hungry already
Brian said he would definitely be here before 9.30. It’s 10 o’clock now and he’s never late. He can’t be coming.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

30 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”  Para el pasado usamos must have (done) y can’t have (done). Por ejemplo:
The phone rang but I didn’t hear it. I must have been asleep
I’ve lost one of my gloves. I must have dropped it somewhere
Jane walked past me without speaking. She can’t have seen me
Tom walked straight into the wall. He can’t have been looking where he was going.

MAY y MIGHT  Usamos may o might para expresar que algo es una posibilidad. Usualmente podemos usar may o might indistintamente.
It may be true / It might be true (tal vez es verdad)
She may know / She might know.  Las formas negativas son may not y might not
It might not be true. (Tal vez no es verdad)
I’m not sure whether I can lend you any money. I may not have enough (Tal vez no tengo suficiente)  Para el Pasado usamos may have (done) o might have (done)
I may have been asleep.
I might have not been waiting for him.  A veces could tiene insignificado similar al de may y might.
The phone is ringing. It could be Tom (= it may/might be Tom)
You could have left your bag in the shop.(= you may/might have left it…)  Pero couldn’t (Negativo) es diferente de may not y might not. Compara:
A: I wonder why she didn’t say hello
She was too far away, so she couldn’t have seen you. (= no es possible que ella te viera)
B: She might not have seen you. (= Tal vez no te vió, o tal vez si)  Usamos may y might para hablar sobre acciones posibles o hechos en el futuro.
I haven’t decided yet where to spend my holidays. I may go to Ireland. (= Tal vez iré a Irlanda)
Take an umbrella with you out. It might rain later. (= Tal vez llueva)
Ana may not come to the party tonight. She isn’t well. (= Tal vez no vendrá)  Usualmente no importa si se usa may o might. Podemos decir:
I may go to Ireland o I might go to Irelamd
Jane might be able to help you o Jane may be able to help you  Pero solamente podemos usar might cuando la situación no es real:
If I know them better, I might invite them to dinner (la situation aquí no es real porque yo no los conozco bien, de modo que no voy a invitarlos)  Hay también una forma continua: may/might be + (verbo+ing). Compara esto con Will be + (verbo+ing)
Don’t phone at 8.30. I’ll be watching the football on Tv
Don’t phone at 8.30. I might be watching the football on TV  También usamos may/might be + (verbo+ ing) para posibles planes. Compara:
I’m going to Ireland in July (seguramente)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

31 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
I may be going to Ireland in July. (Posible)

Might as well / may as well Helen y Clare han perdido el colectivo. Los colectivos pasan cada hora. Ellas conversan Helen: What shall we do? Shall we walk? Clare: We might as well. It’s a nice day and I don’t want to wait here for an hour. (We might as well do something = Debiéramos hacer algo porque no hay nada mejor que hacer y no hay ninguna razón para no hacerlo.)

MUST y HAVE TO  Usamos must y have to para expresar que es necesario hacer algo. A veces no tiene importancia cual de los dos se usa.
Oh, it’s later than I thought. I must go / I have to go.  Igualmente hay algunas diferencias entre must y have to y a veces deben tenerse en cuenta. MUST Must es personal. Usamos must expresamos nuestros sentimientos

HAVE TO cuando Have to es impersonal. Usamos have to para hechos, no para sentimientos personales.


She is really a nice person. You must meet her
I haven’t phoned Ann for ages. I must phone her tonight.


You can’t turn right here. You have to turn left. (por ley de tránsito)


My eyesight isn’t very good. I have to wear glasses for reading.

 Si no se está seguro de cual usar, es más seguro usar have to  Se puede usar must para hablar sobre el presente o el futuro, pero no en el pasado
We must go now
We must go tomorrow.  Have to se puede usar en todas las formas
I had to go to hospital (past)
Have you ever had to go to hospital? (present perfect)  En oraciones negativas e interrogativas con have to, normalmente usamos do / does / did
What do I have to do to get a driveing licence?
Why did you have to go to hospital?
Karen doesn’t have to work on Saturdays.  Mustn’t y don’t have to son completamente diferentes You mustn’t do something = es necesario que You don’t have to do something = no necesitas no hagas algo hacer algo.
You must keep it a secret. You mustn’t
You can tell me is you want but you don’t tell anyone. have to tell me
I promised I would be on time. I mustn’t
I’m not working tomorrow, so I don’t have be late. to get up early.

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

32 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”  Se puede usar “have got to” en lugar de “have to”.
I’ve got to work tomorrow
When has Ann got to go?

I have to work tomorrow When does Ann have to go?

MUST – MUSTN’T – NEEDN’T ‘You must do something = Es necesario que lo hagas
Don’t tell anybody what I said. Yu must keep it secret.
We haven’t got much time. We must hurry ‘You mustn’t do something’ = Es necesario que no lo hagas así que no lo hagas
You must keep it a secret. You mustn’t tell anybody else. (No le digas a nadie más) ‘You needn’t do something’ = Es no necesario que lo hagas, no necesitas hacerlo
You can come with me if you like but you needn’t come if you don’t want to.  En lugar de needn’t se puede usar don’t need to / doesn’t need to
* We needn’t hurry * We don’t need to hurry  Needn’t y don’t need to son similares a don’t have to
We have got plenty of time. We don’t have to hurry

SHOULD  You should do something = es algo bueno para hacer o la cosa correcta para hacer. Se puede usar should para dar consejo o una opinión
You look tired. You should go to bed
The government should do more to help homeless people  Frecuentemente usamos should con I think / I don’t think / Do you think…?
I think the government should do more to help homeless people
I don’t think you should work so hard  ‘You shouldn’t do something? = no es algo bueno para hacer
You shouldn’t believe everything you read in the newspapers  should no tiene “tanta fuerza” como must
You should apologise (sería algo muy bueno)
You must apologise. (no hay alternativa)  También usamos should cuando algo no está bien respecto de lo que esperamos.
I wonder where is Liz. She should be here by now (= ella no está aquí aún y eso no es normal)
Those boys shouldn’t be playing football at this time. They should be at school  Utilizamos should para expresar que esperamos que algo suceda.
She has been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass. (Espero que pase el examen)
There are plenty of hotels in the town. It shouldn’t be difficult to find somewhere to stay  ‘You should have done something’ = No lo hiciste pero hubiese sido lo correcto de hacer
It was a great party last night. You should have come. Why didn’t you? (No fuiste pero hubiese sido bueno que lo hubieras hecho)

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

33 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”
I’m feeling sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much chocolate.  Comparar should (do) y should have (done)
You look tired. You should go to bed now.
You went to bed very late last night. You should have gone to bed earlier.  Se puede usar should después de estos verbos especialmente: Suggestpropose recommend insist

demand


They insisted we should have dinner with them
I demanded that he should apologise  Del mismo modo, se puede usar should después de sugerencias, propuestas, recomendaciones
What do you think of Janes’s sugestion that I should buy a car?  También después de “It’s important/vital/necessary/essential that…”
It is essential that you should be here on time.  También puede omitirse el should en las oraciones anteriores:
Should It’s essential that you be here on time
I demanded that he apologise
What do you suggest I do?  Esta forma (you be/he apologise) es a veces llamada el subjuntivo  También se puede usar en tiempos verbales del presente y del pasado
It’s essential that you are here on time.
I demanded that he apologised  Ser cuidadoso con suggest. No se puede usar to… (to do / to buy) después de suggest:
What do you suggest we should do? / What do you suggest we do?
Jane suggested that I (should) buy a car. / Jane suggested that I bought a car  Se puede usar should después de ciertos adjetivos, especialmente: Strange Odd Funny Typical Natural Interesting

Surprised

surprising


It is strange that he should be late. He is usually on time.
I was surprised that she should say such a thing.

if … should…  Se puede decir ‘If something should happen…’. Por ejemplo
If Tom should phone while I’m out, tell him I’ll phone him back later. (el uso de should implica para el hablante que las posibilidades son menores)
I’ve left the washing outside. If it should rain, can you bring it in?  También se puede poner should al comienzo de estas oraciones
Should Tom phone, can you tell him I’ll phone him back later?  Se puede usar I should … / I shouldn’t para darle consejo a alguien. Por ejemplo
Shall I leave now? No, I should wait a bit longer

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón

34 Escuela Técnica Vial Nacional Nº 2 “Ing. Juan Domingo Pío”

Laboratorio de Idioma II: – Docente Marcela Morejón